COLORECTAL CANCER IN-BETWEEN CLINICAL APPLICATION AND TRANSLATIONAL RESEARCH: WHERE DO WE STAND AND WHAT CAN BE IMPROVED?
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.34635/rpc.816Keywords:
Colorectal cancer, diagnosis, heterogeneity, biomarkers, glycosylationAbstract
Colorectal cancer remains the second deadliest type of cancer with many causes resulting in a severe outcome. It is well recognized the higher level of cellular heterogeneity of colorectal cancer respect to any other type of cancer, which plays a significant role in its diagnosis, prognosis and treatment. Colorectal cancer is a curable disease when detected in early phases, up to 90% when detected in stage I, but the absence of symptoms makes the diagnosis a problematic process. Thus, the understanding of the tumour dynamics, cancer genetics and the expression of specific tumour biomarkers is crucial for the cancer early detection. Furthermore, parallel studies demonstrated the determinant role of post-translational modification in cancer formation and progression. This review aims to resume and combine all the different aspects involved in colorectal cancer malignancy, important for clinicians and researchers to understand where we currently stand, and which improvements are required.
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References
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11. Duraiyan, J., Govindarajan, R., Kaliyappan, K. & Palanisamy, M. Applications of immunohistochemistry. J. Pharm. Bioallied Sci. 4, S307-9 (2012).
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14. Dagogo-Jack, I. & Shaw, A. T. Tumour heterogeneity and resistance to cancer therapies. Nat. Rev. Clin. Oncol. 15, 81–94 (2017).
15. Yang, S. Y., Cho, M. S. & Kim, N. K. Difference between right-sided and left-sided colorectal cancers: from embryology to molecular subtype. Expert Rev. Anticancer Ther. 18, 351–358 (2018).
16. Colussi, D., Brandi, G., Bazzoli, F. & Ricciardiello, L. Molecular pathways involved in colorectal cancer: implications for disease behavior and prevention. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 14, 16365–85 (2013).
17. Zack, T. I. et al. Pan-cancer patterns of somatic copy number alteration. Nat. Genet. 45, 1134–1140 (2013).
18. Broussard, E. K. & Disis, M. L. TNM staging in colorectal cancer: T is for T Cell and M is for memory. J. Clin. Oncol. 29, 601–603 (2011).
19. Guinney, J. et al. The consensus molecular subtypes of colorectal cancer. Nat. Med. 21, 1350–1356 (2015).
20. Vega, P., Valentín, F. & Cubiella, J. Colorectal cancer diagnosis: Pitfalls and opportunities. World J. Gastrointest. Oncol. 7, 422–33 (2015).
21. Jellema, P. et al. Value of symptoms and additional diagnostic tests for colorectal cancer in primary care: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 340, c1269–c1269 (2010).
22. Ford, A. C. et al. Diagnostic utility of alarm features for colorectal cancer: systematic review and meta-analysis. Gut 57, 1545–1553 (2008).
23. Astin, M., Griffin, T., Neal, R. D., Rose, P. & Hamilton, W. The diagnostic value of symptoms for colorectal cancer in primary care: a systematic review. Br. J. Gen. Pract. 61, e231–e243 (2011).
24. Zarkavelis, G. et al. Current and future biomarkers in colorectal cancer. Ann. Gastroenterol. 30, 613–621 (2017).
25. Wang, P. et al. Rates of infection after colonoscopy and osophagogastroduodenoscopy in ambulatory surgery centres in the USA. Gut 67, 1626–1636 (2018).
26. Norcic, G. Liquid biopsy in colorectal cancer-current status and potential clinical applications. Micromachines 9, (2018).
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29. Allemani, C. et al. Colorectal cancer survival in the USA and Europe: a CONCORD high-resolution study. Open 3, 3055 (2013).
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31. Holst, S., Wuhrer, M. & Rombouts, Y. Glycosylation characteristics of colorectal cancer. Advances in Cancer Research 126, (Elsevier Inc., 2015).
32. Lech, G., Słotwiński, R., Słodkowski, M. & Krasnodębski, I. W. Colorectal cancer tumour markers and biomarkers: Recent therapeutic advances. World J. Gastroenterol. 22, 1745–55 (2016).
33. Diehl, F. et al. Circulating mutant DNA to assess tumor dynamics NIH Public Access Author Manuscript. Nat Med 14, 985–990 (2008).
34. Koga, Y. et al. Detection of colorectal cancer cells from feces using quantitative real-time RT-PCR for colorectal cancer diagnosis. Cancer Sci. 99, 1977–83 (2008).
35. Locker, G. Y. et al. ASCO 2006 update of recommendations for the use of tumor markers in gastrointestinal cancer. J. Clin. Oncol. 24, 5313–27 (2006).
36. Carpelan-Holmström, M., Louhimo, J., Stenman, U. H., Alfthan, H. & Haglund, C. CEA, CA 19-9 and CA 72-4 improve the diagnostic accuracy in gastrointestinal cancers. Anticancer Res. 22, 2311–6
37. Normanno, N., Cervantes, A., Ciardiello, F., De Luca, A. & Pinto, C. The liquid biopsy in the management of colorectal cancer patients: Current applications and future scenarios. Cancer Treat. Rev. 70, 1–8 (2018).
38. Woo, D. & Yu, M. Circulating tumor cells as “liquid biopsies” to understand cancer metastasis. Transl. Res. 201, 128–135 (2018).
39. Loureiro, L. R. et al. Novel monoclonal antibody L2A5 specifically targeting sialyl-Tn and short glycans terminated by alpha-2–6 sialic acids. Sci. Rep. 8, 12196 (2018).
40. Carrascal, M. A. et al. Sialyl Tn-expressing bladder cancer cells induce a tolerogenic phenotype in innate and adaptive immune cells. Mol. Oncol. 8, 753–65 (2014).
41. Neves, M. et al. Exploring sialyl-Tn expression in microfluidic-isolated circulating tumour cells: A novel biomarker and an analytical tool for precision oncology applications. N. Biotechnol. 49, 77–87 (2019).
42. Understanding Prognostic versus Predictive Biomarkers.
43. Oldenhuis, C. N. A. M., Oosting, S. F., Gietema, J. A. & de Vries, E. G. E. Prognostic versus predictive value of biomarkers in oncology. Eur. J. Cancer 44, 946–953 (2008).
44. Deschoolmeester, V., Baay, M., Specenier, P., Lardon, F. & Vermorken, J. B. A review of the most promising biomarkers in colorectal cancer: one step closer to targeted therapy. Oncologist 15, 699–731 (2010).
45. Hermanek, P. & Wittekind, C. The Pathologist and the Residual Tumor (R) Classification. Pathol. – Res. Pract. 190, 115–123 (1994).
46. Trinh, A. A. et al. Colorectal Cancer Subtypes by immunohistochemistry Keywords: Colorectal cancer subtypes, anti-EGFR therapy, immunohistochemistry, image analysis, prognostic Funding Sources: (2016). doi:10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-16-0680
47. Trinh, A. et al. Practical and Robust Identification of Molecular Subtypes in Colorectal Cancer by Immunohistochemistry. Clin. Cancer Res. (2016).
48. Lauc, G., Vojta, A. & Zoldoš, V. Epigenetic regulation of glycosylation is the quantum mechanics of biology. Biochim. Biophys. Acta – Gen. Subj. 1840, 65–70 (2014).
49. Loureiro, L. R. et al. Challenges in Antibody Development against Tn and Sialyl-Tn Antigens. Biomolecules 5, 1783–809 (2015).
50. Rabu, C., McIntosh, R., Jurasova, Z. & Durrant, L. Glycans as targets for therapeutic antitumor antibodies. Futur. Oncol. 8, 943– 960 (2012).
51. Dennis, J. W., Nabi, I. R. & Demetriou, M. Metabolism, cell surface organization, and disease. Cell 139, 1229–41 (2009).
52. Holst, S. et al. Investigations on aberrant glycosylation of glycosphingolipids in colorectal cancer tissues using liquid chromatography and matrix-assisted laser desorption time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-MS). Mol. Cell. Proteomics 12, 3081–93 (2013).
53. Dube, D. H. & Bertozzi, C. R. Glycans in cancer and inflammation--potential for therapeutics and diagnostics. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 4, 477–488 (2005).
54. Ferreira, J. A. et al. Overexpression of tumour-associated carbohydrate antigen sialyl-Tn in advanced bladder tumours. Mol. Oncol. 7, 719–731 (2013).
55. Julien, S., Videira, P. A. & Delannoy, P. Sialyl-tn in cancer: (how) did we miss the target? Biomolecules 2, 435–66 (2012).
56. Durrant, L. G., Noble, P. & Spendlove, I. Immunology in the clinic review series; focus on cancer: glycolipids as targets for tumour immunotherapy. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 167, 206–215 (2012).
57. Birklé, S., Zeng, G., Gao, L., Yu, R. . & Aubry, J. Role of tumor-associated gangliosides in cancer progression. Biochimie 85, 455–463 (2003).
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